@article {2177,
	title = {Islamophobia and Twitter: A Typology of Online Hate Against Muslims on Social Media},
	journal = {Policy \& Internet },
	volume = {6},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {133-150},
	abstract = {The Woolwich attack in May 2013 has led to a spate of hate crimes committed against Muslim communities in the United Kindom. These incidents include Muslim women being targeted for wearing the headscarf and mosques being vandalized. While street level Islamophobia remains an important area of investigation, an equally disturbing picture is emerging with the rise in online anti-Muslim abuse. This article argues that online Islamophobia must be given the same level of attention as street level Islamophobia. It examines 500 tweets from 100 different Twitter users to examine how Muslims are being viewed and targeted by perpetrators of online abuse via the Twitter search engine, and offers a typology of offender characteristics.},
	keywords = {Islamophobia, Muslims, Online, social media, Twitter},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1944-2866.POI364},
	author = {Awan, I}
}
@article {1266,
	title = {{\textquotedblleft}Islamophobia{\textquotedblright} in the West: A Comparison Between Europe and America},
	year = {2009},
	institution = {Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Center for  Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown University},
	address = {Washington, DC},
	keywords = {America, anti-terrorism, Europe, Islam, Islamophobia, Muslims, xenophobia},
	url = {http://www12.georgetown.edu/sfs/docs/ACMCU_Islamophobia_txt_99.pdf},
	author = {Jocelyn Cesari}
}
@article {2826,
	title = {Emotional Politics, Islamophobic Tweet. The Hashtags $\#$Brexit and $\#$chiudiamoiporti},
	journal = {PARTECIPAZIONE E CONFLITTO},
	year = {2019},
	abstract = {Contemporary far-right politicians increasingly diffuse messages through social networks. This article argues that online communication may prove effective for political engagement because it can create emotional reactions against certain groups, in a process that I call "emotional antagonism." An example of emotional antagonism is online Islamophobia, which considers Islam as supposedly incompatible with democratic values and tends to conflate Muslims with migrants. Through qualitative observations and textual analyses of tweets, this article explores the following questions: How do certain online exchanges emotionally frame Muslims as the social "others" in relation to European culture? Why and how does the Internet facilitate the spread of emotional antagonism? What type of political propaganda and participation is connected to affective online Islamophobia? The article analyses two case studies: 1) Islamophobic tweets sent in the aftermath of the British referendum in 2016, with the hashtag $\#$Brexit; 2) Anti-Muslim tweets that contain the hashtag $\#$chiudiamoiporti (close the ports), launched by Italian Vice Prime Minister Matteo Salvini in 2018 to support anti-migration measures. The article shows that exploring emotional antagonism can add complexity to the current understanding of Islamophobic conflicts, of social media platforms{\textquoteright} characteristics, and of political participation based on online communication.
},
	keywords = {Brexit, Islamophobia, Matteo Salvini, migration, Twitter},
	url = {http://siba-ese.unisalento.it/index.php/paco/article/view/21281},
	author = {Evolvi, Giulia}
}
@article {52,
	title = {Cyber-Islamophobia? The case of WikiIslam},
	journal = {Contemporary Islam},
	volume = {1},
	year = {2007},
	month = {31 March 2007},
	pages = {53-67},
	publisher = {Springer Netherlands},
	address = {Dordrecht, Netherlands},
	abstract = {A large amount of academic research has analysed and documented the fact that Muslims are often presented in a negative or stereotypical way in Western media and popular culture. This article focuses on how the Internet can also be used in spreading and publishing anti-Islamic and anti-Muslim opinions. Although the Internet is significant in the development of contemporary society, no studies have focused on the importance of information and communication technologies in spreading Islamophobic opinions. However, the new technologies can also be used for monitoring and combating Islamophobia, and many Muslim organisations are today using the Internet for these purposes. The article is based on an indepth analysis of both anti-Muslim and pro-Muslim homepages that can be related to the debate over Islamophobia.},
	keywords = {internet, Islam, Islamophobia, Reactive identities},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/content/p02g0g86387j4t62/},
	author = {G{\"o}ran Larsson}
}
@article {1268,
	title = {The Language of Islamophobia in Internet Articles},
	journal = {INTELLECTUAL DISCOURSE},
	volume = {16},
	year = {2008},
	chapter = {73},
	abstract = {Islamophobia, the hatred for and fear of Islam and Muslims, manifests
itself in physical, political, cultural, linguistic and other forms. From the
linguistic perspective, many words have been coined to perpetuate prejudices
against Muslims and their religion. Expressions are freely used to associate
Islam, which means {\textquotedblleft}peace{\textquotedblright} in Arabic, with concepts and actions which the
religion and practising Muslims do not approve of, much less condone.
Expressions such as Islamic terrorism, Islamic fanaticism, Muslim extremists,
Islamist and political Islam have been used pejoratively. To strike fear and
misgivings in the minds of many Europeans, the British capital has even been
mischievously called {\textquotedblleft}Londonistan{\textquotedblright} by anti-Muslim elements. Known
Islamophobic items taken from Internet articles need to be analysed to respond
objectively to linguistic Islamophobia},
	keywords = {internet, Islamophobia, language, Muslims, political Islam, religion},
	url = {http://www.iium.edu.my/intdiscourse/index.php/islam/article/view/31},
	author = {Haja Mohideen and Shamimah Mohideen}
}
